The belief in a predetermined fate (part I) by F.E. Farwerck

 

Almost all Indo-European peoples have a belief in a "sacred order of things" established and maintained by a power above humans and gods. Inextricably linked to this belief is the notion that fate, which befalls humans and the world, is irrevocably fixed and that no human can change it, not even the gods themselves are exempt from this fate and cannot alter it. Although we see deviations from this rigid standpoint over time, this likely occurred because people could not reconcile this fixed fate with other concepts, such as the idea of "free will," which seemed to hold great allure in later years. Additionally, some gods were later no longer seen as subject to the power of fate but rather identified with it, making them the determiners of fate. However, apart from these and similar interpretations, we see everywhere that originally, there was a belief in a higher power that determined all events and against which nothing could be done. This concept has somewhat transformed into the Indian concept of "karma," which has persisted.

Both the Indians and the Persians believed that a power of fate ruled over the world, the gods, and humans, in all areas of material and spiritual existence. Although we also find here the opinion that a person's fate is partly the result of their own acts of will, as we read in the Yajnavalkya (I, 130): "just as the movement of a chariot does not come about by a single wheel, so the fate (daivam) of a person does not come to fruition without their action," this is only an apparent deviation because human actions are also dependent on fate. The emphasis is always on the belief that everything happens through the power of fate. This fate cannot be overcome (Mahabharata IX, 65, 30) or diverted by heroic strength (ibid. XIII, 29, 19), because fate is always the most powerful. Even the gods are powerless against fate. Indra, who intended to save Kandawa from downfall, could not carry out his plan "when he realized that Kandawa's downfall was determined by fate."

 In Persia, Zarathustra sought to replace the power of fate with the god Ahura Mazda, but since the first century BCE, the belief in an omnipotent fate god, Zurvan, spread, gradually limiting the influence of Ahura Mazda, who according to Zarathustra was the highest power, because it was no longer this god, but Zurvan, who dispensed blessings and curses. This was probably a return to an older belief that existed before Zarathustra's religious reform.

Even the Greeks believed from ancient times in the existence of an all-controlling, predetermined fate. We can find confirmations of this, among others, in the Iliad. When Sarpedon says to Tlepolemos (Book V, 653), "Here on this spot you will undergo death and the black fate from me," it indicates that he sees himself only as the executor and not the cause of this fate. In the sixth song, Hector says (line 487), "No one will send me to the shadows against the will of fate." Even where Homer does not let individuals speak, he repeatedly emphasizes that fate determines everything. In the eleventh song (line 332), he says: "The dark fate drove them forward," and in the eighteenth (line 251), "I think none of mortals ever escaped fate," and there are several similar statements that can be cited. Even Zeus could not change fate, and when considering Hector's fate, it was clear that he was doomed to death, and the god could not change that.

It was believed that each person received their fate at birth, and this fate was referred to by the name "moira". This word signifies that part of life that one receives, with all its vicissitudes, especially with their inevitable death, which occurs at a specific time. From this concept of fate, we see various developments among the Greeks, and later we find various goddesses like Ananke, Tyche, Nemesis, and others taking the place of the impersonal fate power. In Rome, they knew the three Fatae, the Fates, and also, but only in the language of poets and philosophers, the concept of "fatum". In Cicero, we find this word meaning "the eternal established order of nature," and in Ovid, Horace, and Virgil, it means "the eternal unchangeable fate." The three Fatae are depicted as three women, but sometimes also as one man with two women, while occasionally a single woman is found, resting her foot on a wheel. Other personifications of fate are also found among the Romans, where it is notable that the older notion that fate stood above the gods is no longer found. Here, it is the gods and especially Jupiter who determine the fortunes of people and nations through pronouncements that reveal their will.

Also among the Germanic peoples, the belief in a predetermined fate existed. It persisted even into Christian times, and nowhere was the concept of submission to an all-controlling fate taken as uncompromisingly seriously as with this people (Gehl 1, Belief in Fate, page 234). This belief was not connected to belief in the gods. Even in the time of the Icelandic sagas, a century or two before Christianization, it is evident that those who did not believe in the gods but only trusted in "their own power and strength" — an expression we encounter repeatedly — had an unwavering belief in inevitable fate. But there were no believers in the heathen gods who had lost faith in fate. One gets the impression that all, whether believers or unbelievers regarding the gods, were equally fate-believing (Baetke, page 64). The belief in fate was thus more a part of their worldview than their religion, although the division between the two was not as sharp as in our times, and that dividing line seems to have been drawn deliberately. Specifically, the gods were not made the determiners of fate — except in a few exceptions, such as Odin granting military success — and neither were the personifications of fate given a divine character. As a result, these figures were never involved in worship, and they generally did not receive divine reverence, although there are traces of veneration of the three Mothers, who may represent a form of the three weaving Norns, who, however, did not do as they pleased but as they must.

Even the gods were subject to the all-controlling fate. They could investigate the decrees of fate, but they could not determine, change, or stop them. In the myths of the gods, we repeatedly see how especially Odin, the chief among the gods, constantly ponders the future and seeks to fathom what fate will bring to the gods, the world, and humans.

The great significance that the belief in fate had among the Germanic peoples is evident from the many words they had for that inevitable force that determined everything in life. Often, these words had the meaning of "death fate," but they also had numerous words for general destiny, many of which were common Germanic terms. The scope of this discussion does not allow for a discussion of all these meanings, and over the centuries, with the decline of the belief in fate, many of these words disappeared. In modern languages, few words in the old sense of "inescapable fate" remain. In Dutch, we still have words like "lot" and "noodlot" (fate and doom), as well as words like "bestiering" (guidance) and "beschikking" (decree), and also vaguer expressions like "bestemming" (destiny), "toekomst" (future), and so on. Most of these words now carry the meaning of fate determined by divine intervention. The word "beschikking" is related to an older Dutch word "schicksel," which means fate and corresponds to the still-used German word "Schicksal." In the Scandinavian languages, we still have most of the words that recall the old designations, but there are also some newer ones alongside them.

One of the oldest written records of belief in a fixed fate can be found in the Icelandic Edda, a collection of poems that were likely orally transmitted for centuries before being written down. In the Song of Skirnir, he says (stanza 13):

"The day of death is destined for me; fate has determined my life's course."

We also have an old written indication from the southern Germanic region. In the Hildebrandslied, when the old Hildebrand realizes that the opponent he is fighting is his own son, and when this son does not believe that his father is against him, Hildebrand is obliged, for the sake of his honour, to fight his son to the death and thus jeopardize the survival of his lineage. But he does this because he has no other choice, as being considered a coward would be even worse, and when he says the words "wewurt scihit," the ominous fate unfolds. Although written records in these southern regions were strongly influenced by Christianity, and pagan ideas are therefore sparingly expressed, we still have an Old English saying from England that, although showing Christian influence, still reveals the old belief. This saying goes: "Wind is in the air the strongest, thunder of the noise the greatest, the deeds of Christ are great — Fate (Wyrd) is the mightiest." The term "Wyrd" refers to one of the personifications of fate, handed down to us from Scandinavia as the Norn Urdh, and it also still shines through in the word "wewurt" used by Hildebrand; probably, the wind refers to Odin and the thunder to Thor, so the saying originally meant that fate was stronger than the gods. The phrase about Christ was apparently added later, but it was placed on par with the pagan gods and made subordinate to fate.

The belief in an all-powerful fate is clearly demonstrated in numerous ways from the North. We find these especially in the sagas, primarily in the Icelandic sagas, which describe the experiences of the colonists settling on the island and their descendants, especially from the times before and during Christianization. Time and again, it becomes clear how people believe that the future is not dependent on human actions or desires but rather on the all-controlling factor of fate, which even determines human deeds.

This fate-controlled future has, from a human standpoint, three aspects: the fortune that befalls a person, the misfortune that strikes them, and the events that have a neutral character. Nowadays, when we use the word "fate," it is mostly in the sense of "doom," but in ancient times, it also encompassed the other two aspects equally emphatically. Whatever happened to a person was part of the execution of fate's decrees, although even then it was human nature to emphasize the unfavourable experiences the most. However, alongside that, there are frequent mentions of a fortunate fate, which to a large extent depended on the luck inherent in a person or that came upon them, a fortune that could also be lost.

This inherent luck could encompass various aspects: noble lineage, long life, status, wealth, intelligence, beauty, and so on. Many people possessed such luck, but there could also be a "lucky man" par excellence, whose luck could be compared to "mana." It was believed to be strongest among the ancient lineages and especially among the royal lineages, so much so that the king's fortune could benefit the entire population. However, it could also happen that the king's fortune deserted him, resulting in lost wars or failed harvests, and the only solution could be the king sacrificing himself to the gods, an idea found among many ancient peoples.

Just as the actions of a lucky person brought them luck, the actions of an unlucky person were turned into misfortune. This belief still exists more or less today, and we still hear phrases like "he was born for misfortune" contrasted with "everything goes well for him."

Although they did not fear death, they considered it fortunate to live long lives. If someone's time had not yet come, they would continue to live, even when it seemed likely that they would not survive. In the Saga of Harald the Skald-King (chapter 1), Ingjald's farm is surrounded by enemies who set it on fire. Ingjald goes outside and asks for safe passage for his men, but it is denied. He then speaks to the young men Ottar and Avaldi, who are with him: "It seems my fate is sealed here. But I would like you to escape the fire and live longer. I will show you a secret door to exit. Later, when you have risen in power, you will have ample opportunity to avenge this." They agreed, and Ingjald let them escape through the secret door. He stayed behind because his sense of honour did not allow otherwise; he had not requested safe passage for himself for the same reason. His sense of honour sealed his fate. The saga notes about the young men: "They passed through fire and the noise of weapons and continued towards the island, destined to live longer. They escaped and reached a farmer living on the island." In the Laxdæla saga (chapter 15), we read about several men swimming in ice-covered water. It was a perilous undertaking, but the writer says: "Because they had strength and bravery and because it was destined for them to live longer, they crossed the river and reached solid ice on the other side." We find a clearer example of someone's life being determined by fate in Snorri's Heimskringla, in the story of King Olaf the Holy (chapter 99). After jarl Thorkel defeats jarl Einar of the Orkneys, the writer notes, somewhat surprised, that none of Einar's men attempted to avenge him. He adds, "It had to happen according to fate because Thorkel was destined to live longer."

Even in situations where death wasn't involved, everything was considered dependent on fate. In the Saga of Wise Njal (chapter 6), Hrut asks the King of Norway for permission to return to Iceland. When the king inquires about the reason and asks if he expects to be more honoured in Iceland than in his court, Hrut replies, "Perhaps not, but everyone must accept what is destined for them." Gunnar expresses this even more strongly in the same saga (chapter 31) when he wants to sail to Iceland and King Harald suggests that he may not return. Gunnar responds, "That is up to fate, my lord."

Fate determined every aspect of human life, including one of its most significant points, death. It is repeatedly emphasized that there is no escape from death, no matter what precautions one takes. In the saga named after him, Njal (chapter 68) warns Gunnar to be cautious in the face of imminent danger, Gunnar responds, "If it is destined for me, I will meet my death, no matter where I am." Similarly, Grim reacts when Hallmund dies, saying, "Everyone must depart when their time comes." We still hear similar sentiments today in common sayings like "No one goes before their time."

In the Saga of the " Góði " (chief-priest) Snorri, Arnkel decides to go abroad. He can take his movable property with him, but the immovable property that he cannot sell must be left behind. He accepts this with the words: "So let it go with the lands that cannot be sold, as fate determines."

The extent to which fate, as they believed, intervened in personal actions is evident in the words spoken by Gisli to Aud after she told him about her conversation with Thorkel. He said, "I see no counsel here that is valid, but I will not be angry with you for it. For everyone speaks what fate prompts them, and what must happen, happens."

What befell a person, the fate that was his, was not regarded as important as it may seem to us today. Much more important was the attitude that a person adopted towards his fate. For the Icelander — and this attitude probably applied to all Germanic peoples in pagan times — it was not so much about what became of his life, but rather whether he ultimately triumphed over this life, whether he died as a hero or as a weakling. What fate had allotted to a person, he could not escape. He had to accept that, but everything depended on the attitude with which he did so. Even deeds performed in one's life did not carry as much weight as the attitude one adopted towards fate. In the Saga of Hord, it is said: "That he became a criminal was partly the fault of his companions, but on the other hand, no one can escape their fate." When the majority of his band rejected his plan to cease hostilities, Hord said: "What is destined must happen, and indeed, it is not easy to resist this. But I have no desire to continue participating in these hostilities any longer." The saga writer then expresses satisfaction about him: "Everyone praised his bravery, friends and enemies alike, and in his time, there was no one more heroic and wise than Hord."

F.E. Farwerck in Nehalennia, September 1956